Table 1 Baseline characteristics of the study population stratified by the quartile of HOMA-β

Age (years)

60.20 ± 7.63

61.56 ± 7.65

60.07 ± 7.06

59.67 ± 7.52

59.48 ± 8.16

0.079

Male, n (%)

181 (30.6)

57 (38.5)

44 (29.7)

47 (31.8)

33 (22.3)

0.025*

BMI (kg/m²), n (%)

<0.001*

  ≥ 25

429 (72.5)

93 (62.8)

101 (68.2)

112 (75.7)

123 (83.1)

  < 25

163 (27.5)

55 (37.2)

47 (31.8)

36 (24.3)

25 (16.9)

Education level, n (%)

0.073

 Primary education or below

83 (14.0)

27 (18.2)

14 (9.5)

15 (10.1)

27 (18.2)

 Elementary education

357 (60.3)

85 (57.4)

89 (60.1)

100 (67.6)

83 (56.1)

 High school education or above

152 (25.7)

36 (24.3)

45 (30.4)

33 (22.3)

38 (25.7)

Smoking, n (%)

0.662

 Never

488 (82.4)

118 (79.7)

121 (81.8)

123 (83.1)

126 (85.1)

 Former or current

104 (17.6)

30 (20.3)

27 (18.2)

25 (16.9)

22 (14.9)

Drinking, n (%)

0.231

 Never

478 (80.7)

112 (75.7)

120 (81.1)

120 (81.1)

126 (85.1)

 Former or current

114 (19.3)

36 (24.3)

28 (18.9)

28 (18.9)

22 (14.9)

HDL-C (mmol/L)

1.39 ± 0.32

1.43 ± 0.35

1.45 ± 0.31

1.38 ± 0.32

1.31 ± 0.30

< 0.001*

LDL-C (mmol/L)

3.32 ± 0.91

3.36 ± 1.03

3.45 ± 0.93

3.29 ± 0.83

3.19 ± 0.82

0.150

Dyslipidemia, n (%)

456 (77.0)

115 (77.7)

107 (72.3)

112 (75.7)

122 (82.4)

0.212

Hypertension, n (%)

256 (43.2)

61 (41.2)

55 (37.2)

65 (43.9)

75 (50.7)

0.120

Heart disease, n (%)

78 (13.2)

25 (16.9)

13 (8.8)

17 (11.5)

23 (15.5)

0.146

High-Hcy, n (%)

166 (28.0)

38 (25.7)

43 (29.1)

42 (28.4)

43 (29.1)

0.903

Cognitive Impairment, n (%)

356 (60.1)

102 (68.9)

89 (60.1)

84 (56.8)

81 (54.7)

0.064

HOMA-IR

2.27 ± 2.03

1.81 ± 1.44

1.71 ± 0.94

2.09 ± 1.13

3.48 ± 3.22

<0.001*