Table 1 Baseline characteristics of all participants by occurrence of the Parkinson’s disease status

Number of participants

329,359

327,121

2238

Age at baseline, year, mean (SD)

56.23 (8.11)

56.19 (8.10)

62.84 (5.27)

< 0.001

Sex, N (%)

< 0.001

Female

172,543 (52.4)

171,762 (52.5)

781 (34.9)

Male

156,816 (47.6)

155,359 (47.5)

1457 (65.1)

Education, N (%)

< 0.001

Higher

210,856 (64.0)

209,542 (64.1)

1314 (58.7)

Upper secondary

19,293 (5.9)

19,168 (5.9)

125 (5.6)

Lower secondary

55,490 (16.8)

55,147 (16.9)

343 (15.3)

Other

43,720 (13.3)

43,264 (13.2)

456 (20.4)

Smoking status, N (%)

< 0.001

Current

31,960 (9.7)

31,829 (9.7)

131 (5.9)

Previous

116,266 (35.3)

115,298 (35.2)

968 (43.3)

Never

181,133 (55.0)

179,994 (55.0)

1139 (50.9)

Drinking status, N (%)

< 0.001

Current

306,676 (93.1)

304,654 (93.1)

2022 (90.3)

Previous

10,765 (3.3)

10,647 (3.3)

118 (5.3)

Never

11,918 (3.6)

11,820 (3.6)

98 (4.4)

Skin color, N (%)

< 0.001

White

248,726 (75.5)

246,940 (75.5)

1786 (79.8)

Colored

80,633 (24.5)

80,181 (24.5)

452 (20.2)

Use of sun/UV protection, N (%)

< 0.001

Yes

296,796 (90.1)

294,838 (90.1)

1958 (87.5)

No

30,991 (9.4)

30,722 (9.4)

269 (12.0)

Do not go out in sunshine

1572 (0.5)

1561 (0.5)

11 (0.5)

Vitamin D supplement, N (%)

0.502

Yes

13,354 (4.1)

13,270 (4.1)

84 (3.8)

No

316,005 (95.9)

313,851 (95.9)

2154 (96.2)

Use of fish oil supplements, N (%)

< 0.001

Yes

104,200 (31.6)

103,399 (31.6)

801 (35.8)

No

225,159 (68.4)

223,722 (68.4)

1437 (64.2)

Total physical activity, N (%)

0.393

≥ 600 MET-min/week

269,756 (81.9)

267,939 (81.9)

1817 (81.2)

< 600 MET-min/week

59,603 (18.1)

59,182 (18.1)

421 (18.8)

Prevalent diabetes, N (%)

< 0.001

Yes

16,080 (4.9)

15,859 (4.8)

221 (9.9)

No

313,279 (95.1)

311,262 (95.2)

2017 (90.1)

Prevalent hypertension, N (%)

< 0.001

Yes

90,221 (27.4)

89,299 (27.3)

922 (41.2)

No

239,138 (72.6)

237,822 (72.7)

1316 (58.8)

Body mass index, N (%)

< 0.001

Healthy Weight

110,875 (33.7)

110,251 (33.7)

624 (27.9)

Obese

75,388 (22.9)

74,843 (22.9)

545 (24.4)

Overweight

141,454 (42.9)

140,390 (42.9)

1064 (47.5)

Underweight

1642 (0.5)

1637 (0.5)

5 (0.2)

Townsend deprivation index, mean (SD)

-1.51 (2.94)

-1.51 (2.95)

-1.59 (2.88)

0.178

PM_2.5, ug/m3, mean (SD)

9.96 (1.05)

9.96 (1.05)

9.91 (1.03)

0.018

Time spent in outdoors (average), N (%)

< 0.001

≤ 1.5 h/day

104,973 (31.9)

104,407 (31.9)

566 (25.3)

1.6–2.5 h/day

87,036 (26.4)

86,446 (26.4)

590 (26.4)

2.6–3.5 h/day

61,187 (18.6)

60,736 (18.6)

451 (20.2)

> 3.5 h/day

76,163 (23.1)

75,532 (23.1)

631 (28.2)

Time spent in outdoors (summer), N (%)

< 0.001

≤ 2.0 h/day

120,904 (36.7)

120,224 (36.8)

680 (30.4)

2.1-3.0 h/day

57,508 (17.5)

57,134 (17.5)

374 (16.7)

3.1-5.0 h/day

89,290 (27.1)

88,616 (27.1)

674 (30.1)

> 5.0 h/day

61,657 (18.7)

61,147 (18.7)

510 (22.8)

Time spent in outdoors (winter), N (%)

< 0.001

≤ 1.0 h/day

177,496 (53.9)

176,424 (53.9)

1072 (47.9)

1.1-2.0 h/day

80,757 (24.5)

80,160 (24.5)

597 (26.7)

> 2.0 h/day

71,106 (21.6)

70,537 (21.6)

569 (25.4)

Serum 25(OH)D level, N (%)

0.464

Deficient (< 25 nmol/L)

34,871 (10.6)

34,655 (10.6)

216 (9.7)

Insufficient (25–50 nmol/L)

122,878 (37.3)

122,049 (37.3)

829 (37.0)

Sufficient (> 50 nmol/L)

139,927 (42.5)

138,952 (42.5)

975 (43.6)

Missing

31,683 (9.6)

31,465 (9.6)

218 (9.7)

Season of diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease, N (%)

Spring

534 (23.9)

Summer

588 (26.3)

Autumn

604 (27.0)

Winter

512 (22.9)